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In this study, we established a morphine-induced constipation mouse model, characterized by small intestinal dysfunction, including reductions in fecal output, fecal water content, the motility and the transit rate of small intestines

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Macrophages and dendritic cells are an important group of APCs

This is accompanied by enhanced SCFA production, increased GLP-1 secretion, improved insulin sensitivity, better intestinal barrier integrity, and reduced systemic inflammation (Zhang et al., 2025)