In summary, the role of lactate in macrophages cannot be oversimplified as merely promoting M2. It functions more like a double-edged sword, with its ultimate effect, whether it favors pro-inflammatory (M1) or anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotypes, being tightly regulated by factors such as concentration, duration, cell origin, and the overall tissue microenvironment [108]
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All samples were collected with the patients written informed consent and approval from the Sixth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University Review Board (ethics code: 2021ZSLYEC-100)
This cycling approach keeps intracellular NAD+ levels elevated without requiring continuous clinical visits